(forthcoming). Crossing the great divides: problems of cultural diffusion for leadership in education. (1999). Abstract. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 401414. P. Where preparation and development engage at all with culture, the current prevalence of content-competencies (Stier, 2003, p. 84) does not begin to equip leaders with the skills needed to relate to exogenous and endogenous cultures. Lumby et al. Hoyle, E. ), Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective, Peabody Journal of Education, Litvin, D. R. Ribbins As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). Archer, M. Notwithstanding these different positions, knowledge of how leadership is conceptualized and enacted locally is a sine qua non of successful design. (2004). Moral leadership in education: an Indian perspective. As within continents or regions, within each nation, a common culture cannot be assumed, the differences between the culture of Native Americans, Hispanic and African American women and that of white males within the United States being an example given above. For example, North American and European development assert a cultural commitment to inclusion and equality for all. (2007). C. D. ), The University Council for Educational Administration: Handbook of Research on the Education of School Leaders, Lumby, J. & Dorfman Watch Events 3 Live Search by typing your school, event, association. London: Sage. Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. Changing the culture of a school or of a leadership development program is therefore not a finite endeavor. (Litvin, 1997, pp. M. D. In the absence of a similarly complex or authoritative study of the cultural factors in educational leadership, the design of much preparation and development seems to adhere to an assumed commonality and to avoid detailed engagement with the culturally contingent (Lumby et al., forthcoming), resulting in an international curriculum for school leadership preparation (Bush & Jackson, 2002, pp. P., Glatter Bryant, M. For the purposes of this chapter, these two snapshots highlight issues that result from consideration of culture, such as who are the primary leaders and how might the leadership theory used in their development be shaped in response to differing ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions? However, Lumby et al. 6886). None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. Rejection of the cultural assumptions in preparation and development programs abound on the grounds of gender (Brunner, 2002; Coleman, 2005; Louque, 2002; Rusch, 2004), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998; Tippeconic, 2006), national culture (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Hallinger, Walker. Hodgkinson, C. (Eds. The New Meaning of Educational Change (3rd ed.). Heck, R. However, boundaries are permeable. While the analytical models described are helpful in conceptualizing the nature of culture, there are a number of key issues for leaders to recognize in reflecting on their own organizations. The product will be a mosaic of sub-cultures, which may reinforce the cultural objectives of the whole school or, in some cases, appear as counter cultures that challenge the organizational hegemony. R. J. Its view of the nature of truth and reality how does it define what is true and what is not and how is truth defined in the context of the social or natural world? (1990). The dynamic culture of At first sight these components of culture may be thought to be significantly outside the control of schools themselves. Bajunid (1996, p. 52) argued over a decade ago that in Malaysia there is an urgent need to inspire, motivate and work with relevant and meaningful concepts that the locals are at home and familiar with and to free educational leadership and management from the intellectual domination of Greco-Roman, Christian, Western intellectual traditions (1996, p. 63). Prasad A major international study, The Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) project, aimed to establish which leadership behavior was universally viewed as contributing to leadership effectiveness (House, Paul, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman & Mansour 2004, p. 3). & Wong, K-C. We consider later in this chapter the implications of this for the professional development of lead-ers within educational institutions. The first is that leaders are passive ambassadors of culture. Internationally leader preparation and development tends to focus on the principal. Ultimately, it is the cultural product/output of the school by which it will be judged, for it will be benchmarked against the cultural expectations that government, society and community have for their schools. ABSTRACT The relevance of the concept of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement is explored. The processes of cultural change in schools have been considered extensively in the literature (e.g. 8-9; Stoll and Fink 1995). Tippeconic, J. Complex and important concept School culture is one of the most complex and important concepts in education. (1986). In an increasingly complex, diverse and unpredictable world, it is necessary for schools and those working with them . The values they espouse or eschew, the aspirations and achievements they have, and their contribution to communities (local, regional, national), whether positive or negative are the cultural product of the school. . Consequently, a tendency to stereotype or discount alternative cultures must be halted by conscious, persistent effort (Lumby with Coleman, 2007). One consequence is that there is currently no precise means of assessing dimensions variously labeled as cultural distance or degree of diversity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 107) or diversity amount and diversity degree (Thomas, 1999; Taras & Rowney, 2007); that is the differences between the culture of one location of leader development and another, or the extent of cultural differences within a leader development group. In others, variation is considerable and the primary drive to develop teaching and learning, attainment and achievement may be located elsewhere. & (2005). Educational Leadership: Ambiguity, Professionals and Managerialism. & (2001). Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). | How to buy & Leaders interact with culture at the organizational level both in terms of efforts to include the multiple cultures which may be present and also to sustain, adapt or change the dominant culture. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. At the interface with exogenous and endogenous cultures, preparation and development reflect choices which are more than technical. School culture . Ruiz-Quintanilla, A. Paper presented to the By contrast Singaporean cultures emphasis on collective action and respect for seniority underpins acceptance and effective use of mentoring as an important mode of development, defined as a process whereby an expert or senior person guides a less experienced leader (Tin, 2001). Al-Meer, A. There are different typologies that can be used to assess. Bajunid, I. (1997). Fernandez Research in such contexts is still not extensive, although Billot, Goddard and Cranston (2007) report the findings of an international study which explores how leadership in successful multi-cultural schools is exercised in three different national settings (Canada, New Zealand and Australia). Hallinger, P. (1982). M. 17). (See, for example, Buruma and Margal-its book, Occidentalism: The west in the eyes of its enemies.) However House et al. Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. (Hargreaves 1995; Maslowski 2001, pp. London: Falmer. 143158). Decisions to encourage acceptance or critique of the dominant culture and its effect lie at the moral heart of supporting the education of leaders. Online publication date: May 2009, Print ISBN: 9780415988476 Walker, A. , Despite some advances since that time, understanding of culture and its relationship to leadership and its development remains empirically underdeveloped. Cultural sensitivity demands consideration of how leadership is dispersed amongst the players within schools and the regional administration in a specific context before designing national and local systems in response. (Hoppe, 2004, p. 333). Dorfman, P. W. (2005). I refer students to this publication for new research articles or for my work, Acquisition of this publication will benefit department, faculty and student needs, I am a member of the publication's editorial board and strongly support the publication. Sierra Vista Elementary 1800 E. Whittier Boulevard La Habra, CA 90631 Phone: 562-690-2359. Cultural diversity and group work effectiveness. Bjerke, B. P. & Prosser, J. & Hargreaves, D. H. Conflicting expectations, demands and desires. Two distinctive views of this connection can be identified (Collard, 2006). Discernment of the publicly espoused culture, the culture implicit in practice and the desired culture will inevitably comprise a kaleidoscope of differing opinions and wishes reflecting the perspectives of the individuals responsible for the design and delivery of development. (1991). Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. In terms of cultural outputs school leaders need to understand both what the external societies expect from the school and what they wish to achieve themselves this will require an integration of their personal and professional values, their vision of the purpose of schooling, and the visions and values of the key external stakeholders. (1995). If alternatively, culture is viewed as multiple, unstable, persistently contested, reflecting the differing perspectives and power of individuals and groups, changing the culture of a school is a different kind of endeavor. In. Published 1996. Cultural processes, the second element of a systems perspective, will be reflected in almost every dimension of the operation of the school. Adler, N. Jackson, D. According to Mortimore (1991), a lot of improvement efforts have failed because research results were not translated adequately into guidelines for educational practice. eBook ISBN: 9780203872239 Adobe Just as there is an interplay between culture and modes of delivery, assessment may also be rendered more or less effective by the degree of cultural fit. Preparation and development programs therefore face a twofold challenge: In the next section we shall examine the issues of culture and leadership preparation and development. House, R. J. The GLOBE project was undertaken in a business context. Organisational Culture and Leadership. Similarly, Louque (2002) challenges the appropriateness of the culture embedded in the selection and development of educational leaders to Hispanic and African American Women. (Eds. London: Sage. & Wallace, M. School administration in China: a look at the principals role. (1997).Organizational behaviour (3rd ed.). In previous papers we have described the evolution of this project in detail (Stoll and Fink, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, Fink and Stoll, 1992). & International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 309319. (1998). He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. , (2001). In C. Stoll & Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change . Creating this culture of change by constantly challenging the status quo is a contact sport involving hard, labor-intensive work and a lot of time. (2003). Duignan, P. Lumby with Coleman (2007) identifies the emotional dimensions of rage, confusion, and anxiety in engaging with alternate cultures (DiTomaso & Hooijberg, 1996; Osler, 2004; Prasad & Mills, 1997; Rusch, 2004). While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . The challenge for educational leaders is to recognize and conceptualize each of these cultural realms and understand how it impacts on and provides implications for their own school. Rather, cultural competency, the ability to recognize, analyze and engage purposefully with culture at the macro and micro levels is a foundational skill, which positions educational leadership as critical contributors to shaping society and not just the school. Cultures which are comfortable with hierarchy or with the co-creation of knowledge may find affinities with process modes. The chapter considers five main themes. Such a perspective suggests that the dominant culture, were it to be discerned with any certainty, would be embedded, unexamined and therefore unchallenged, in preparation and development programs. Gupta & Pupils, staff and school leaders have an on-going engagement with external stakeholders, from parents, to neighbors, to employers, to the media, and every one of those interactions conveys a message about the culture of the school and its underpinning values. It has 525 students in grades 9-12 with a student-teacher ratio of 13 to 1. (Eds. Buckingham: Open University Press. P. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 6894. Panel 4 A Typology of School Cultures. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 1(2), 95117. The (racially neutral) politics of education: a critical race Theory perspective. Global forces, national mediations and the management of educational institutions. (Ed.). (2007). Understanding international differences in culture would provide a basis for planning cultural fit in preparation and development programs. We must be aware that the spread of good practice internationally through the educational management literature, through the actions of international organisations such as UNESCO, and through the impact of professional development programmes, all of which are dominated by the perspectives of western educational management practitioners and academics, is in danger of presenting such a global picture of good practice. Educational Management & Administration, Bush, T. School Culture. Rowney, J. Find Washington Middle School test scores, student-teacher ratio, parent reviews and teacher stats. This may be interpreted in several ways ranging from the operational to the political. Understanding Schools as Organisations The attempt to mould culture in any direction involves alignment with some and challenge to others. & San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jacky Lumby (2001). However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. London: Paul Chapman. T. Multiple perspectives on values and ethical leadership. Bottery, M. In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. Leithwood, K. & , (2004). The second has a similar perspective but rather than losing the identities of existing cultures in the melting pot sees the retention of plural cultures within education which can enrich and reinforce each other what is sometimes described as the salad bowl approach to cultural change. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. The processes of globalization have been a significant feature of all dimensions of society and economy over the last three decades. Leaders navigate cultural choices which are always constrained. London: Sage. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. Cohen, D. K. The implications of these strategies for leadership training and development have been analyzed by DiPaola (2003) who outlines a number of key components of principal preparation programs. Cultural complexity offers only multiple complications in assessing fit, not safe generalized conclusions. Cultures consequences: management in Saudi Arabia. Fullan (2001) has suggested that recognizing the need for, and understanding the processes involved in, cultural change are essential tools of leadership development, for it is in establishing a culture of change in school that successful school development can occur. At the international scale, for example, the work of Hofstede (1991), has sought to provide a broad general analysis of national organizational cultures. Leadership and intercultural dynamics. In Saudi Arabia a command system is accepted by culture and tradition and schools have, in any case, little power to take decisions. Davis In contrast the assessment of educational leaders often assumes that consideration of cultural fit is unnecessary in relation to standards which are uncritically accepted as international. For example, 86% of the worldwide variance on individualism-collectivism and 70% of variance across power-distance are found in Europe (Sparrow & Hiltrop, 1998, p. 73). For example, Walker, Bridges and Chan (1996) provide a rare example of research into the fit of a particular learning approach, problem-based-learning, to a specific cultural context, Hong Kong. L. Stoll, D. Fink. Diversity and the demands of leadership. R. J. As in the GLOBE project, subgroups within nations might be also identified for inclusion. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Lakomski, G. There have been strong responses to the lack of critical awareness of these processes. These may be through processes of exclusion or processes of inclusion, resulting in a relatively homogeneous or diverse student body, but in either case the outcome will be a pupil profile which reflects a particular set of cultural characteristics. A number of research areas seem indicated as urgently required. He suggests that schools are bastions of conservatism, not centers of social experimentation. (2001). Developing the argument further, Litvins point is that even within an apparently homogeneous group there will be wide variation in culture related to the multiple characteristics, history and context of each individual. In China the relatively low contact hours enjoyed by teachers combined with a culture of comfort with peer critique has resulted in teacher groups working together for a considerable proportion of their time to achieve change (Bush & Qiang, 2000), while principals spend much of their time on operational administration (Washington, 1991). Many of our schools are good schools - if this were 1965. Two typologies are developed. Such reculturing (Fullan, 2001) is perhaps the biggest challenge to school leaders, though, for it will certainly generate conflict, contradiction and destabilization as part of the process as DiPaola (2003, p. 153) has indicated: School culture can have an positive. For example, the balance of time given to study of the legislation relevant to schooling or to the implications of a particular faith, whether Islam, Christianity, or any other, will embed values within the curriculum through the choice of priority reflected in the time allocated. (2001). The third element of the system is the cultural output of the school. Here we shall consider three of these perspectives which we believe provide diverse insights reflections on the tangible components of culture and a number of models of those components in action; consideration of the organizational scales at which culture is important in educational contexts; and a systems view of culture which enables the areas of potential management influence of culture in schools to be identified. , Each of the cultures influences and is influenced by each of the others. International Studies in Educational Administration. A person in charge is not required. The organization's relationship to its environment. (2004). Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: Assessment is also increasingly against competences which are exported internationally (MacPherson et al., 2007). Zhang, J. H. Celikten, M. Gender and race in leadership preparation: a constrained discourse. , & (1996). She argues that a school's culture 'is shaped by the history, context, and the people in it ' (p. .